Energy Audits for Buildings

The energy crisis currently overcomes the world has driven us to the plan of new energy productive structures. However, the current structures expend a extensive measure of routine energy and lessen them will help us to save them for the future. Also, it would help us to meet the Energy Efficiency measures.

The capital expenses for this change would be high, however, bring down energy charges over a drawn-out region of time would counterbalance them and achieve huge benefits for the business and also the earth. Energy review includes the precise gathering and investigation of energy information from a specific office for actualizing energy protection measures.

An energy review sets up both where and how energy is being utilized, and the potential for energy reserve funds. It incorporates a stroll through the overview, a survey of energy utilizing frameworks, examination of energy utilization and the readiness of an energy spending plan, and gives a pattern from which energy utilization can be thought about after some time. A review can be directed by a worker of the association who has the fitting aptitude, or by a pro-energy-inspecting firm.

According to the Energy Conservation Act, 2001, Energy Audit is explained as “the verification, monitoring, and analysis of the use of energy including submission of the technical report containing recommendations for improving energy efficiency with cost-benefit analysis and an action plan to reduce energy consumption”.

Types of energy audits

Energy examining of structures can run from a short stroll through of the office to a point by point PC recreation of the investigation. For the most part, there are four sorts of energy reviews which are as depicted underneath.

1. Walkthrough Audit

This comprises of a short nearby visit for the examination of the office. By this, straightforward economical moves can be made for prompt energy funds. This comprises of repairing broken glass windows, bringing down the preset temperatures of HVAC frameworks as per utility, conforming the evaporator air-fuel proportions. This is normally an upkeep strategy done intermittently to enhance the productivity of energy frameworks.

2. Utility Cost Analysis

In this kind of review, we painstakingly dissect the working expense of the office. The information acquired over a drawn-out stretch of time energy charges, top requests, energy utilize designs, and climate impacts are distinguished. This helps us to set up a connection between cost and utility. Generally, this progression incorporates,

Checking utility charges and guaranteeing that no mix-ups are made in figuring the month to month energy bills. This is imperative on the grounds that the energy rate structures for modern offices can be very unpredictable.

Assurance of the prevailing charges in the energy bills is another piece of this examination. Top requests take-up a noteworthy share of the power utilization cost. Hence to shave off the pinnacle request supplemental energy measures can be suggested.

Checking whether the office can profit by option fills which are more practical than the common ones. This will make noteworthy decreases in energy bills. Also, the energy evaluator can figure out if or not the facility for energy retrofit extends by dissecting the utility information. In reality, the energy utilization of the office can be standardized and contrasted with files (for example, the energy utilized per unit of floor zone for business structures — or per unit of an item for mechanical offices).

3. Standard Energy Audit

The standard audit gives a complete examination of the energy frameworks of the office. Notwithstanding the exercises portrayed for the walkthrough audit and the utility cost examination depicted over, the standard energy review incorporates the advancement of a pattern for the energy utilization of the office and the assessment of the energy investment funds and the cost adequacy of fittingly chose energy preservation measures. The well-ordered approach of the standard energy audit is like that of the point by point energy review, which is depicted in the accompanying subsection.

Commonly, rearranged instruments are utilized as a part of the standard energy review to create gauge energy models and to anticipate the energy reserve funds of energy preservation measures. Among these devices are degree-day techniques, and direct relapse models. Furthermore, a basic payback examination is, for the most part, performed to decide the cost-viability of energy protection measures.

4. Point by point Energy Audit

This is the most far-reaching but also tedious energy audit sort. In particular, the point by point energy reviews incorporates the utilization of instruments to quantify energy use for the entire building as well as for some energy frameworks inside the working (for example, by end utilizes: lighting, office hardware, fans, chiller, and so on.). What’s more, advanced PC reproduction projects are regularly utilized for point by point energy reviews to assess and suggest energy retrofits for the office. The methods accessible to perform estimations for an energy review are assorted. Amid an on-location visit, hand-held and brace on instruments can be utilized to decide the fluctuation of some building parameters, for example, the indoor air temperature, the luminance level, and the electrical energy utilized. At the point when long-haul estimations are required, sensors are normally utilized and are associated with an information obtaining framework so measured information can be put away and be remotely open. As of late, no nosy load observing (NILM) systems have been proposed. The NILM procedure can decide the continuous energy utilization of the critical electrical loads in an office by utilizing just a solitary arrangement of sensors at the office benefit entrance. The insignificant exertion connected with utilizing the NILM method contrasted with the customary multi metering approach (which requires a different arrangement of sensors to screen energy utilization for every end utilize) makes the NILM an extremely appealing and reasonable load-observing strategy for energy benefit organizations and office proprietors. The PC reproduction programs utilized as a part of the nitty gritty energy audit commonly give the energy utilize dispersion by load sort (i.e., energy use for lighting, fans, chillers, boilers, and so on.). They are regularly in view of element warm execution of the building energy frameworks and for the most part, require an abnormal state of designing aptitude and preparing.

In this type of energy audit, more thorough cost-effective assessment of the energy conservation techniques is generally undertaken. Particularly, the cost-effectiveness of energy retrofits may be decided depending on the life-cycle cost (LCC) investigation rather than the simple payback period analysis

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Learn calculation for ultimate bearing capacity of piles based on the principles of soil mechanics.

Calculation for the ultimate bearing capacity of piles based on the principles of soil mechanics.

The materials for the pile construction can be precisely specified, and their fabrication and installation can be controlled to conform to strict specification and code of practice requirements, the calculation of their bearing capacity is a complex matter which at the present time is based on theoretical concepts but mainly on methods based on experience.

The site area of supporting the foundation is exposed & inspection to be carried out by the pile contractors & consultants with the team of soil lab???. Samples should be taken from multiple locations to ensure that its bearing characteristics confirm the results of exploratory boreholes and soil tests.

FDT Test & the constructional techniques are used limited to a depth of only a few centimeters below the excavation level for a spread foundation. Virtually the whole mass of soil influenced by the bearing pressure remains undisturbed and unaffected by the constructional operations.

Safety factor against the general shear failure of the spread foundation and its settlement under the design working load can be predicted from physical characteristics of the undisturbed soil which depends on the complexity of the soil stratification.

The bearing capacity of the piled foundation is quite different. The soil strata or rock bed beneath the toe of a pile is compressed or loosened to an extent which affects its end-bearing resistance. Changes take place in the certain environmental conditions at the pile-soil interface over periods of days, months or years which affect the skin-friction resistance of a pile. These changes are due to the dissipation of excess pore pressure set up by installing the pile, to the relative effects of friction and cohesion which depend on the relative pile-to-soil movement and to chemical or electrochemical effects caused by the hardening of the concrete or the corrosion of the steel in contact with the soil.

Piles that are installed in groups to carry heavy foundation loads, the operation of driving or drilling for adjacent piles can cause changes in the bearing capacity and load/settlement characteristics of the piles.

The general pile construction procedure simple empirical factors are applied to the strength, density and compressibility properties of the undisturbed soil or rock. The various factors which can be used depend on the particular method of installation and are based on experience and on the results of field loading tests.

The basics of the soil mechanics subject are to calculate the bearing capacity of piles.

Pile Construction Tips

The total resistance of the pile to compression loads is the sum of two components, namely shaft friction, and base resistance. A pile in which the shaft-frictional component predominates is known as a friction pile while a pile bearing on a rock or some other hard incompressible material is known as an end-bearing pile.

The need for adopting an adequate safety factor with calculations to determine that we may never be able to estimate axial pile capacity in many soil types more accurately than about 30%’. However, even if it is possible to make a reliable estimate of total pile resistance, a further difficulty arises in predicting the problems involved in installing the piles to the calculated depths by the Structural Engineer.

In the case of driven and cast-in-place piles, the ability to drive the piling tube to the required depth and then to extract it within the pulling capacity of the piling rig must be correctly predicted. say, 20 m to carry safely a certain working load, but quite another problem to decide on the energy of the hammer required to drive the pile to this depth, and yet another problem to decide whether or not the pile will be irredeemably shattered while driving it to the required depth.

Conditions under the environmental changes with time affect the importance in calculating the bearing capacity of the pile in clay; the effects also include the rate of applying a load to a pile and the time interval between installing and testing a pile. The shaft-frictional resistance of a pile in clay loaded very slowly may only be one-half of that which is measured under the rate at which load is normally applied during a pile loading test.

The slow rate of loading may correspond to that of a building under construction, yet the ability of a pile to carry its load is judged on its behavior under a comparatively rapid loading test made only a few days after installation. Because of the importance of such time effects both in fine- and coarse-grained soils the only practicable way of determining the load-carrying capacity of a piled foundation is to confirm the design calculations by short-term tests on isolated single piles, and then to allow in the safety factor for any reduction in the carrying capacity with time.

The effects of grouping piles can be taken into account by considering the pile group to act as a block foundation, as described in ARTICLE LINK!!!!!!.

Quick Tips Regarding History Of Piles

Function of piles

Piles are columnar elements in a foundation which have the function of transferring load from the superstructure through weakly compressible strata or through water, onto stiffer or more compact and less compressible soils or onto the rock. They may be required to carry uplift loads when used to support tall structures subjected to overturning forces from winds or waves. Piles used in marine structures are subjected to lateral loads from the impact of berthing ships and from waves. Combinations of vertical and horizontal loads are carried where piles are used to support retaining walls, bridge piers and abutments, and machinery foundations.

Historical

The driving of bearing piles to support structures is one of the earliest examples of the art and science of a civil engineer. In Britain, there are numerous examples of timber piling in bridge works and riverside settlements constructed by the Romans. In medieval times, piles of oak and alder wood were used in the foundations of the great monasteries constructed in the fenlands of East Anglia. In China, timber piling was used by the bridge builders of the Han Dynasty (200 BC to AD 200). The carrying capacity of timber piles is limited by the girth of the natural timbers and the ability of the material to withstand driving by hammer without suffering damage due to splitting or splintering. Thus primitive rules must have been established in the earliest days of piling by which the allowable load on a pile was determined from its resistance to driving by a hammer of known weight and with a known height of the drop. Knowledge was also accumulated regarding the durability of piles of different species of wood, and measures taken to prevent decay by charring the timber or by building masonry rafts on pile heads cut off below water level.

Timber, because of its strength combined with lightness, durability, and ease of cutting and handling remained the only material used for piling until comparatively recent times. It was replaced by concrete and steel only because these newer materials could be fabricated into units that were capable of sustaining compressive, bending and tensile forces far beyond the capacity of a timber pile of like dimensions. Concrete, in particular, was adaptable to in-situ forms of construction which facilitated the installation of piled foundations in drilled holes in situations where noise, vibration, and ground have had to be avoided.

Reinforced concrete, which was developed as a structural medium in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, largely replaced timber for high-capacity piling for works on land. It could be precast in various structural forms to suit the imposed loading and ground conditions, and its durability was satisfactory for most soil and immersion conditions. The partial replacement of driven precast concrete piles by numerous forms of cast in-situ piles has been due more to the development of highly efficient machines for drilling pile bore-holes of large diameter and great depth in a wide range of soil and rock conditions, than to any deficiency in the performance of the precast concrete element.

Steel has been used to an increasing extent for piling due to its ease of fabrication and handling and its ability to withstand hard driving. Problems of corrosion in marine structures have been overcome by the introduction of durable coatings and cathodic protection.

5 Basic Elements of Earth Fill Dams

A marvelous superstructure typically created by the placement and compaction of complex semi-plastic compositions of soil, sand, clay, or rock. Having semi-pervious waterproof natural covering for its natural surface and a dense, impervious core. Earthfill dam /  Embankment dam is a large artificial dam & also known as terrain dam. The typical cross-section of an earth fill dam shows a shape like a bank or a hill.

Some elements of Earth Fill Dams are listed below:

1. Crest of Dam

The crest width of dams has to be adequate enough to maintain the seepage line inside the dam when the reservoir is filled to the brim. The top width of the dam if the road is not predicted and has to be of minimum 3m length for low and medium head dams and it has to be at least 6m for tall head dams. In cases where the road is envisaged, then the breadth of the dam is fixed in accordance with the class of road and is assessed on the basis of the road code.

Top width can be assessed with the help of the following commended formulae:

a) For highly low dams top width is specified by

B = H/5 + 3

b) For dams lesser than the length of 30m

B = 0.55(H)1/2 + H/5

For dams greater than the length of 30m

B = 1.65(H + 1.5)1/3

B = 1.67(H) 1/2

Balustrades are specified at the end of the roads to stop car falling off the slopes and cliffs.

2. Side Slopes of the dam

Side slope of dams has to fulfill the static stability. But, since the stability computations could be undertaken only after stating the profile of the dam and fixing the seepage line, it becomes essential to provide an original side slope. The initial slope can be undertaken from the tables below:

Slope	Material of dam	Side slopes depending on the height of the dam
		Less than 5m	From 5m – 10m	From 10-15m
Upstream	Clayey Sandy	2 2.5 – 2	2.5 3 – 2.5	3 3
Downstream With filter	Clayey Sandy	1.5 2	1.75 2	1.75 2
Downstream without filter	Clayey Sandy	1.75 2	2 2.25	2.25 2.25

In the lower head dams, typically one and constant side slope is utilized, but in high head and medium dams, varying side slopes are typically utilized to decrease the size of the dam.

Side Slope Accordance to recommendations of Terzaghi

No.	Kind of material	Upstream slope (H: V)	Downstream slope (H: V)
1	Well graded homogeneous soil	2.5:1	2:1
2	Homogeneous coarse silt	3:1	2.5:1
3	Homogeneous silt clay: i) for dam height of maximum 15m ii) for dam height greater than 15m	2.5:1 3:1	2:1 2.5:1
4	Sand or sand and gravel with a clay core	3:1	2.5:1
5	Sand or sand and gravel with a reinforced concrete core wall	2.5:1	2:1

2. Berms: Berms are developed at both sides, the upstream and downstream side of the dam with the objective the states of assurances at the inclines and their repairs and furthermore to increase the width of a dam at the base with the point of expanding leakage length. It is additionally carried out when developments cofferdams are connected to the body of the dam. On the downstream side, berms are carried out an interim of 10 – 15m high. The breadth of the berm is taken between 1 – 2 m.

3. Free Board

Typical freeboard is the perpendicular space amongst the ordinary pool level and the apex of the dam. The least degree of the freeboard is the perpendicular separation between the high flood level and the peak of the dam.

The least stature of freeboard is undertaken as 1.5 hw where he is specified by:

how = 0.032 (V.F)1/2 + 0.763 – 0.271(F)1/4 for F, 32 km — –(X) Additionally, hw = 0.032 (V.F)1/2 for F . 32km — – (Y) where hw = wave tallness (stature of water from top to trough of waves in meters)

V = speed of twist in km/hr

F = bring or straight length of water breadth in km.

Freeboard values as recommended by U.S.B.R are specified in the table below:

Free Board by USBR

Spillway Type	Dam Height in m	Minimum freeboard over M.W.L
Free spillway	Any height	2 m to 3 m
Controlled spillway	Up to 60 m	2.5 m above the top of gate s
Controlled spillway	More than 60 m	3.0 m above the top of gates

4. Slope Protection (Revetment)

Upstream side protection: For shielding the upstream slope from worsening and destruction from wave action, the slope is enclosed with diverse protective substances.

Rock riprap, it can be either dumped stone rocks or can be stone boulders could be constructed. Stone pitching gave a slope of 1.5: 1 to 2: 1 for regular soil material of dam and 3: 1 for poor soil material. The revetment stones are connected at the bottom of the dam to avoid the occurrence of slipping of the embankment. The density of the stone pitching is normally greater than 60 cm. In the majority of cases, the stone pitching is positioned over gravel and then sand cushion. Bigger sized stones with their broader face facing downwards are crammed with each other with the utilization of hammer.

Concrete, reinforced concrete slabs, steel plates, bituminous material pavement, brick tile pavement can also be favorably utilized. But, the widespread survey conducted by the US Corps of Engineers in the 1940s of over 100 dams have shown that dry dumped riprap stone pitching yields the best effectiveness in the basis of failure rate.

Upstream protection with hand-layered rip-rap

Downstream Protection

Planting green grass (turfs) is one of the most cost-effective, simple and operative approaches of defending the downstream from natural phenomena like rainfall and wind action. It should be carried out in slopes. Counter-boom can also be undertaken.

Downstream protection

5. Drainage

Drainage in earth dams is implemented for bringing down the leakage bend; to prevent the leakage of water from streaming onto the downstream curve, and additionally passing on leakage water through the structure of the dam to the downstream part of the dam. By its characteristic, dam drainage should have at least 2 sections; a structure for intake (drainage trench) that permits leakage water from the body and base of the dam, while in the meantime steering clear of disfigurement courtesy of leakage and movement structure that vehicles that leak water from the dam. But, in most drainage, it is hard to see precisely these two sections.

Hydrotechnical construction development practice has worked out numerous drainage frameworks based upon the kind of dam, materials of the base and structure of the dam. Among the most regularly utilized drainage frameworks are:

i) Drainage crystal: with numerous positive sides (points of interest) however requires the utilization of expansive amount of stones

ii) A kind of drainage crystal in which the channel material of the drainage framework is laid to stretch out to a specific stature on the downstream façade. This kind of drainage framework is utilized when there could be the hike of the tailwater over the apex of the prism

iii) Flat even drainage: It needs a comparatively smaller amount of stones and rearranges construction. It has the benefit of depleting both the foundation and assortment of dam and it is utilized for the most part when the establishment is comprised of soaked material

iv) Combination of flat drain and prism

v) Horizontal channeled drainage: comprises of a pipe (tube), laid horizontal to base of the slant of dam.

vi) Horizontal stone drainage: a kind of level funneled drainage in which rather than the pipe, a stone prism is utilized.

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How to Do Analysis & Design OF G+5 Residential Building with Engineering Software?

Living in the 21st-century number of complicated and erratic structure and designed to endure the Earthquake, Wind and needs to analyze, design the structure by the various engineering software like ETABS, STAAD.Pro, TEKLA and to design the structure in this project we used the ETABS software due to company recommendation and to find stress analysis in slab, shear force for the beam and area reinforcement for the column and design the foundation depends upon the reaction and height of the foundation level depends upon site and safe bearing capacity of the soil due to stability purpose-designed the retaining wall in this project.

Keywords: Stress analysis, IS 875, Shear force, Bending moment, Deflection, Compression members.

 Preface of Engineering Software!

Marvelous structures & Landmarks are designed to resist the earthquake, wind load and stable the structure. Due to damage in the structure, it causes loss of peoples and venerability to the high rise buildings. To check the strength stiffness and resistance the displacement of the building by proper designs and detail. Extensile of the building is capable to design the proper gravity loads and depends on the design of the building, the analysis, the design is done by using the engineering software called E-TABS. ETABS is 3D structural software. ETABS is the abbreviation of "Extended 3D Analysis of Building System. Hence revisions are done depend upon the provisions and the result given by the analysis. Staad always gives higher demand for steel reinforcement. Also after proving the credibility of ETABS by manual calculations. Once correctly define materials in ETABS, and the necessary steps taken in the modeling process and discussed below.

The objective of Analysis Tools & Software

To perform the analysis and design of the structure without any type of failures.

1.      To understand the basic principles of structures by using  Standard Codes

2.      To understand the parameters of the design for beams, columns, slabs and other structural components.

3.      To prepare the 3D model of the structure by using the E-TABS Software for detailed analysis and design.

4.      To produce good structural work for performing analysis and design for a residential & any other kind of building.

Loads and Combination Formula

As per the limit state design of reinforced concrete structures and pre-stressed concrete structures, the following load combination has been taken:

1.      1.5(D.L+L.L)

2.      1.2(D.L+L.L±Ex)

3.      1.2(D/L+L.L±Ey)

4.      1.5(D.L±Ex)

5.      1.5(D.L±Ey)

6.      0.9D.l±1.5Ex

7.      0.9D.L±1.5Ey

For Example

The live load was taken as 2 KN/m² since the analysis and design are being done for the residential building as per IS Code and as there is no need of giving Dead load in E-TABS which is an advantageous thing. Wall load for 9 inches is given as 12.42 KN/m2 and for inner walls 6.21 KN/m2. Floor finish was given as 0.8 KN/m².

Material properties of the structure

A grade of concrete for the slab, beam, column: M20

Column Sizes = 230X350 mm

Beam Size = 230X350 mm

Slab thickness = 150 mm

Number of Stories = 5

Height = 3 meters and plinth height = 1.5 meters

Live Load on slab = 2 kN/sq.m. and Dead load on slab = 1.5 kN/sq.m.

Architectural plan

The plan was taken from the architecture in Lahore and been analyzed and designed by the software package E-TABS.

In fig 1 it shows the center line diagram of the building which is considered for analysis in ETABS.

                                                     Figure 1 Centre line diagram of the building

Methodology/Procedure

Step# 1: Initial setup of Standard Codes and Country codes

Step# 2: Creation of Grid points & Generation of structure

After getting opened with ETABS we select a new model and a window appears where we had entered the grid dimensions and story dimensions of our building.

Step# 3: Define the Property

Here we had first defined the material property by selecting define menu material properties. We add new material for our structural components (beams, columns, slabs) by giving the specified details in defining. After that, we define section size by selecting frame sections as shown below & added the required section for beams, columns etc.

Step# 4: Assign Property

After defining the property we draw the structural components using the command menu. Draw a line for the beam for beams and create columns in the region for columns by which property assigning is completed for beams and columns.

Step# 5: Assign Supports

By keeping the selection at the base of the structure and selecting all the columns we assigned supports by going to assign menu joint\frame Restraints (supports) fixed.

Step# 6: Defining Loads

In ETABS all the load considerations are first defined and then assigned. The loads in ETABS are defined as using static load cases command in define menu.

Step# 7: Assign Dead Loads

After defining all the loads. Dead loads are assigned for external walls, internal walls in the stand but in E-TABS automatically taken care by the software i.e., inbuilt

Step# 8: Assign Live loads

Live loads are assigned for the entire structure including floor finishing.

Step# 9: Assign wind loads

Wind loads are defined and assigned as per IS 875 1987 PART 3 by giving wind speed and wind angle. But since this is a G+3 Residential Building having a total height less than 12 meters there is no need of assigning of wind loads or earthquake loads.

Step# 10: Assign Seismic loads

Seismic loads are defined and assigned as per IS 1893: 2002 by giving zone, soil type, and response reduction factor in X and Y directions_. But since this is a G+3 Residential Building having a total height less than 12 meters there is no need of assigning Seismic loads.

Step# 11: Assign load combinations

Using load combinations command in define menu 1.5 times of dead load and live load will be taken as mentioned in above.

Step# 12: Final Analysis

After the completion of all the above steps, we have performed the analysis and checked for errors.

Step# 13: Ready To Design

After the completion of the analysis, we had performed concrete design on the structure as per IS 456:2000. ETABS performs the designs for every structural element.

                                                   Figure 2 Model in ETABS

By using the centerline diagram the grid system is given by X and Y coordinates and spacing method of the grid system is adapted for convenient of the user.

Results of Example Structure’s Analysis

Shear Force for the analysis part

Shear and bending moment diagrams are analytical tools used in conjunction with structural analysis to help perform structural design by determining the value of shear force and bending moment at a given point of a structural element such as a beam.

                                 Figure 3 Shear force diagram for the structure

The bending moment diagram indicates the bending moment resisted by the beam.

                                Figure 4 Bending moment diagram for the structure

For the area of longitudinal reinforcement, go to design menu in ETABS, concrete frame design and start design check.

                                      Figure 5 Longitudinal reinforcement of the structure

Outcome of Analysis

The given structure is designed based on the E-TABS and the theory of LIMIT STATE METHOD which provide adequate strength, serviceability, and durability besides the economy. The displacement, shear force, bending moment variation has been shown. If any beam fails, the dimensions of the beam and column should be changed and reinforcement detailing can be produced.

Courtesy:
We are thankfull to 

K. Naga Sai Gopal 
B.Tech Student,  Civil Engg. Department, K L University, AP, India.

N. Lingeshwaran  
Assistant Professor Civil Engg. Department, K L University, AP, India.

AP, India.

To make that research publication Possible.

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